ADOPTION OF INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION POLICY IN INDONESIA Impact to Teacher Education and Professional Development

The paper discussed the implication of adopting international education policy in Indonesia through international development aid and funding. Specific implications to teacher education and teacher professional development was discussed by analyzing two education reforms enacted in 1980 to 1990’s. The paper describes implementation processes and challenges faced by the programs from local dynamics especially on how social, political and historical influence teacher identity as well as teaching culture. The implications to

school, district as well as national policy was discussed in light of uniformity of educational system by dissemination of best practices and model of education through aid and other cooperative projects.Local responses to international education policy is increasingly relevant to ensure education reform will respond local needs and sensitive to local context.[Artikel ini mendiskusikan implikasi dari mengadopsi kebijakan international di Indonesia melalui dana dan bantuan international.Khususnya, dampak pada pendidikan guru dan perkembangan professional guru dikaji melalui dua program pendidikan yang diterapkan pada tahun 1980-an hingga 1990-an.Deskripsi dari pelaksanaan dan tantangan yang dihadapi dalam implementasi program tersebut dilihat dari konteks local dimana pengaruh social, politik dan sejarah mewarnai konsepsi identitas guru serta budaya pengajaran di sekolah.Implikasi pada kebijakan sekolah, pemerintah local dan nasional dimana kecenderungan akan penyeragaman system pendidikan terjadi melalui kerjasama dan bantuan juga dijabarkan.Artikel ini menekankan pentingnya respon local yang relevan terhadap penerapan kebijakan pendidikan internasional agar sensitive terhadap kebutuhan dan konteks local itu sendiri.] Keywords: internationalisation, teacher education, teacher professional development, international education policy

A. Introduction
Internationalisation took on many forms of approaches and policies based on the rationales in different countries when conducted at different period of time (de Wit 2011).In the field of education, especially teacher education, it is usually considered to be 'locally entrenched and served mostly national agenda' (Larsen 2016).In different countries, teacher education institutions are preparing teachers that will teach in their communities using national curriculum set by government.However in the recent years, attention to internationalised teacher education and development increased due to 'the generally intensified internationalization processes and the rising awareness that teachers are among the most important factors in a high quality of 'Education for All ' (Sieber and Mantel 2012).Therefore, universal ideas on teacher education and professional development are starting to attain international attention and usually form a part in larger education reform.
The international education policy, adopted through internationally funded projects and programs, is one earlier form of cross border education.Usually championed by various international agencies and intergovernmental cooperation, these international ideas on education influence and shape national policies through cooperation in projects and programs (Brown 2015) .Although recently, this cross border education has moved away from its earlier form of cooperation to partnership and recently to a more commercial and competitive model (Knight 2012).The lingering influence of international education policy still left its mark and influence how countries formulate their educational policies.This essay will highlight internationalization process through adoption of international education policy in Indonesia specifically how it impacts teacher education and professional development policy.By analysing researches conducted in teacher education and professional developments in Indonesia funded by development aid, the purpose of the article is to describe challenges in implementing international education policy into local context and the outcomes of the process, specifically in Indonesian context.In the end, insights gain from the analysis might be used to support formulation of teacher education and professional development policy in Indonesia.

B. Historical Background of Teacher Education in Indonesia
Before going any further, it will be useful to have historical background of Indonesia teacher preparation.Because in the case of Indonesia, internationalisation in teacher education occurred even earlier.In 1827 the first teacher education institution was established in Indonesia by the Netherland Indies government, and in 1907 it started to gradually reform teacher preparation in Indonesia to mirror standard of European Teachers (Suwignyo 2012).Although after independence in 1945, Indonesia started to look toward U.S for its teacher education benchmarking process and eventually adopt unified various teacher pathways previously existed prior to independence by establishing Teachers college model in 1954.Hence teacher education in Indonesia has been influenced to a certain degree by international ideas might support the assumption of marginalizing local indigenous system that have been existed in different regions of Indonesia.And like many colonialized countries at that time, establishment of educational system usually implemented on top of existing traditional and indigenous already existed locally (Brown 2015).These changes in orientation of teacher education institutions and dynamics of local context created ambivalence in the institutions which impact the quality of teacher preparation in Indonesia (Buchori 2007).It will be complicated further by the pressure to deployed teachers to fill the rapidly expanded school public system in the independence era.
One of enduring international education policy that was adopted post World War II and gain more relevance as response to globalisation is 'equal access to basic education' (Williams 2015).By formulating education as basic right, nation states were urged to establish modern public schools systems funded and managed by the government as part of nation building and key to economic development.In Indonesia, adoption of this policy resulted in massive opening of elementary public school in the regions during 1970's and 1980's.As a result, the rate of enrollment rose from 41% in 1945 to almost 100% in 1995 (Nielsen, 1998).This is subsequently forcing teacher institutions and government to create alternative pathways to prepare teachers to teach in these schools (M. Thair and Treagust 2003;Sumintono and Subekti 2014).The achievement of education expansion came at the expense of emergency teacher trainings that go on for years because some teachers recruited at that time did not receive more than one year teacher training beyond the level that they are supposed to teach (Adey et al. 2004).
The process started a downward spiral of lowering teacher status due to domino effects as described by Chang et al. (2013) as follow.First, expansion of civil service including teachers reduced overall salary which prompt teacher to seek secondary income.Then in turn, this created high absenteeism which lowering learning qualities and working ethics.Additionally, teachers' autonomy and authority further undermine by dominance of civil servant identity (Bjork 2004).As civil servant, teachers required to obey and conform and further national agenda in school.In addition, excessive control to schools' processes through massive bureaucratization was implemented to ensure schools would serve national building agenda during New Order regime (Chang et al. 2013;Buchori 2007).This also severed the accountability link between teachers to students, parents and community (Bjork 2006) and it resulted to further reduced teachers' professional status and respect in society.Although Indonesia achieved nearly universal access to basic education in 1990's, the access do not commensurate with high quality learning outcomes (World Bank 2014).Moreover, it was done at the expense of significant devaluation in teachers' role as educators as well as limiting schools' accountability to its stakeholders.

C. Teacher Preparation and Development through International Aid
It is safe to say then that teacher education and professional development in Indonesia is highly connected to dynamics international education policy adoption.In addition, interaction with local socio-political factors creates a teaching culture that characterized Indonesian educational system and will limit the effectiveness of reform efforts.To support this argument, I will present two examples of teacher professional development.First, a program called Pemantapan Kerja Guru, PKG ('strengthening the work of teacher') aimed to improve teaching practices among science teachers in Indonesia (M.Thair and Treagust 2003).And the second program which is part of larger decentralization process in Indonesia, the implementation of Local Curriculum Content (LCC) in 1998 which then continued by the implementation of School Based Curriculum Development (SCBD) policy in 2003.The essay will cite some researches conducted to evaluate these two programs conducted by various researchers.In the end, I will argue that internationalisation occur in teacher professional development in Indonesia, well-meaning as it is, will need to take into account the local context of Indonesia educational system, framed in equal learning collaboration while create a coherent system of teacher selection, preparation and development.

Pemantapan Kerja Guru (Strengthening Teachers' Work)
In 1980, aware of the low-quality learning outcome and to create relevance with development moved toward more industrialized country, Indonesia government launched a massive teacher professional development program funded by UNESCO, UNDP and World Bank (Adey et al. 2004).The project was implemented to encourage teachers in adopting student-center method to teach science.Due to large area coverage and to ensure teachers' participation at the local level, the implementation of the program is conducted using 'cascade model'.The model employed cadre of initial instructors that were selected and trained in at the national center and overseas then return to work as instructor in their own schools to disseminate their practices within networks of teachers that meet regularly (Adey et al. 2004).
Teachers were trained, observed and gave feedback as well as evaluated in their local contexts.Participating teachers also created and modify materials together, specifically the worksheet, that will be used in their classrooms and equip with set of equipment for practical science.To prevent dilution effects, regular meeting at the provincial and national level were held to gather feedbacks and learn from other regions (Adey et al. 2004).And he further emphasized that one particular feature of the program that support program adoption locally is the feedback loop system that agree with consensual nature of Indonesia's culture.Furthermore this also create local ownership toward improvement of their own practice.Toward the end, the program was able to create large networks of teachers connected through Sanggar Kerja Pemantapan Guru (SKPG).A local initiatives that disseminate further the student-center approach less cost, but lessened the effectivity (Thair & Treagust 2003).
However, several researches conducted by Thair and Treagust (1997;2003) as well as Wahyudi and Treagust (2004), also cited challenges that limit the effectiveness of the program.First, the centralized structure of the curriculum created barriers in terms of limiting teachers to create innovation in learning although this feature also it enabled teachers to follow the same basic curriculum structure at the same time across the region.Second, the national examination policy based on narrow indicators for learning create disincentive for teachers to teach using student-center learning.Hence teachers refer back to teachercenter model to ensure content mastery for examination along with peer-pressure to continue the dominant teaching style (Thair & Treagust 2003).Third, scaling up from province-based workshop to district level through SKPG, while disseminate student-center ideas further, resulted in reduced quality in feedback and training.Fourth, no integration occurred between the program and national teacher management policy, which created no additional incentives for those who are involved in the program and resulted in exodus of trained teachers to other positions.This incoherence also intensify by existence of parallel in-service initiatives occur throughout Indonesia without any coordination and driven by different priorities and implementation mechanism (Asian Development Bank 1996 in Thair andTreagust 2003).Hence, the impact of PKG was limited during initial phases where supports for full steps of the program were implemented but sustainability of the program was limited during funding because no further interventions in place to prolong the impact of the programs when the program phased out during 1990's.

Curriculum Decentralisation
Curriculum reform in the form of Local Content Curriculum (LCC) that started in 1992 can be considered as Indonesian government's response to globalisation.The reform is intended to facilitate learning that will equip graduates of basic schooling with more relevant skills and knowledge upon graduation but also familiar with local knowledge and identity.LCC required school to provide local content based on local culture and heritage for students up to 20% of its instructional hours per week (Bjork 2004).Hopefully it will create incentives for students to continue their education and reduce dropout rates after Junior High School level.Meanwhile, School Based Curriculum Development (SBCD) was implemented post reform era in 1998, by the issuance of National Education System Law No. 20 of 2003 which underline decentralisation of education in Indonesia.SBCD was part of larger decentralisation process in Indonesia that distribute many decision making process to the district level making it the biggest decentralisation process ever attempted in the world earned the term 'big bang decentralisation' (Leer 2016).SCBD created curriculum at the school level with participations of school stakeholders such as parents, communities, teachers and principals.LCC include providing local content as part of SCBD features and ensure that school curriculum across Indonesia will accommodate student learning about specific region's diversity and culture.
Both reforms conducted as part of devolving authority from central government to local authorities (Akrom 2015;Bjork 2003;Yeom, Acedo, and Utomo 2002).Specifically, decentralisation in curriculum viewed as one method to bring curriculum up to date with changes in knowledge and skills by making it more relevant to local conditions as well as increased local stakeholders' participation and held school accountable to the immediate community where it served.Decentralisation of authorities also reflect social, political and economic dynamic in Indonesia in 1990's (Yeom et al. 2002) and part of common prescription brought by funders of development aid to respond to economic downturn and criticism of previous programs that ignore local participations (Leer 2016).
However there are several factors that hinders the achievement of LCC and SBCD's goals in Indonesia.Lack of support is cited as one, as there is no textbook available and not enough teachers able to teach LCC as well as structural and capabilities gap between provincial and district officials (Yeom et al. 2002).But cultural gap on what considered as the core of reform seems also exist in the very individuals who supposed to be implementing the reform namely the teachers and school stakeholders (Akrom 2015;Bjork 2004).Hence, what appears to be changing in the surface, covered deep immovable culture of teaching that keep the learning process unchanged.
The failure can be contributed by various factors, Bjork (2003) attribute it to contradictory demands of the reforms toward existing teachers' 'civil servant identity' that value obedience in the past contrasted to the demand to be more autonomous in their role as 'independent educator' during implementation of LCC.Not to mention considerable knowledge and skills in curriculum planning that teachers should acquire to fulfill this role but fail due to lack of training and experience (Bjork 2006).Meanwhile, Akrom (2015) cited that obedience in the form of policy compliance create situation of superficial implementation of School Based Curriculum Development program, a 'mirage'.He further described, although the stakeholders' participations in the activities during curriculum development are visible, they are limited at best.This situation created low buy-in for SBCD implementation by stakeholders and further limiting teachers implementation of SCBD at schools.

D. Challenges and Opportunities for Teacher Professional Development
From analysis of two reform programs which implement international education policy in Indonesia, there are several impacts to teacher education and professional developments that can be observed.First, teacher play two different roles at the same time in PKG and LCC/SCBD as subject of reform as well as implementer of reform.This dual roles highlight the instrumental position teachers play during educational changes, hence their participation is substantial in all phases of reform ( van Driel, Beijaard, and Verloop 2001).Second, culture of teaching and teacher identity in Indonesian context create local dynamics that make implementation of international education policy diverted from the intended goals, if not hindered the implementation altogether.Third, teacher education and professional development activities so far are not integrated to wider educational policy and synchronized to include whole teaching career.
These impacts echo the criticism leveled toward implementation international education policy, namely one-size-fits all approach that ignore the varieties of local contexts deemed to contribute to lack of local buy in (Brown 2015), reform prescriptions usually simplified and based on researches conducted on developed countries which might be applied indiscriminately (Alexander 2001).As Sarason (1991) mentioned that every context has 'its own structures, explicit and implicit rules, structures, traditions, power relationships and purposes variously defined by its members.'Hence, he further argues that adopting a particular reform policy that is successful in one setting will be more possible through replication rather than imitation.Replication will require a degree of comprehension about the nature of the change as well as awareness of local context that is weaved into conceptual framework for change (Sarason 1991).In Indonesia, adoption of international education policy requires awareness of diversity in local contexts where education institutions exist as the region also contains diverse ethnics and local cultures.Implication at school, local or district as well as development project will be discussed in the following section.

Teacher Preparation and Development Policy
At policy level, given the changing orientation from teacher training to teacher learning, there is a long-term view toward developing teachers throughout their career (Edwards, Gilroy, and Hartley 2002).The implication is to create infrastructure of policies that will enable comprehensive teachers management framework which includes teachers selection, education and development.Teachers can be prepared and cultivated through systematic development program that takes into account their preparation and their career projection, in a manner that will allow them to exercise autonomy and professional judgement (Villegas-Reimers 2003).The implementation of Teacher Law 2005 is intended to provide this framework however the results of implementation to improve students outcome is not yet conclusive (Chang et al. 2014).
More than borrowing, learning from others, in terms of international best practices in policies and models of teacher development, is still relevant. Ingvarson (1998) (in Villegas-Reimar 2003) emphasized the need to differentiate between teachers professional models and system.System implies larger and more comprehensive view on teacher professional development that take into account goals alignment, curriculum relevance, contexts, evaluation procedures and other supporting factors.Meanwhile, models for professional development refers to specific processes and opportunities that are planned to provide teachers professional development from the beginning (Villegas-Reimers, 2003).In this case, international education policy for teacher development might serve as reference and guidelines rather than imposition both to inform system and model replication.
In terms of teacher professional development implementation, Darling-Hammond and Lieberman (2016) emphasized the collaborative, integrative as well as wide-ranging nature of successful professional development implemented various countries such as Singapore, Finland and Canada.Collaboration among teachers can be supported through reflections and sharing as part of routine that will encourage teachers to learn from one another.While integration between career ladders and professional development allow teachers to develop and share expertise in teaching, mentoring, curriculum development and leadership.Various opportunities for professional learnings need to include strategies such as sharing of successful classroom practices and research as well as instructional leadership modelling by senior teachers and principals.Creating this 'spaces for collaboration' will require new type of school and district leadership not only through policy but also practices.

Culture of Teaching
In the nature of slow systemic changes, incremental and modest reform at practical level, might bring about optimism and sustainable change in culture of teaching at school level.Based on the previous discussion on implementation of international education policy in Indonesia, culture of teaching has been cited as one barrier to change practices (Sumintono and Subekti 2015;Bjork 2005;Thair & Treagust 2003).According to Hargreaves and Fullan (1991), culture of teaching refers to beliefs, values, habits and assumed ways of doing things among community of teachers who had to deal with similar demands and constraints over many years.
Culture of teaching in Indonesia development informed by historical, cultural, social, economic and political contexts (Bjork 2004).Teachers' roles are shaped and shaping the teaching culture in dialogical response to these contexts.There was initial effort to shape this culture of teaching in 1921 when Ki Hadjar Dewantara founded national schools network that provide alternative schooling to Dutch-based colonial schooling system at that time.The school named 'Perguruan Taman Siswa', the term 'perguruan' is taken from Indonesian term 'guru' (teacher), hence literally, the school means "House of teachers and Garden of Students" (Dewantara 1952).School as embodiment of teachers were common metaphors in Indonesian culture and signify the central role teachers play in schools.
Sadly. this metaphor change along with the narrowed down of teacher's role as 'curriculum implementer' (Craig 2012) reflecting the decline of teachers social standing in Indonesian post-independent society.As 'curriculum implementer', teachers are losing the sense of being in charge, constantly judge against standard and decrees from administrators (Craig 2012).In other word, as teacher lose their autonomy, they are losing their central role in school and society at large.
There is a need to clarify teachers' role in the school that reflect its centrality in implementing reform through conscious effort of shaping culture of teaching.Culture of teaching powerfully affecting teachers by providing meaning, support and identity to teachers and their work (Hargreaves & Fullan 1991).
To analyze the complex nature of various forces that shaped the Indonesia's current culture of teaching is beyond the scope of this essay.However, the awareness of the way this culture is instrumental and influenced educational reform will need to be considered by reformulating teachers' role and supporting their development.

Collaborative Perspective to Development Aid
The power dynamics in development aid and funding distribution has been one thorny issue in cooperation projects.Saud and Johnston (2006) reflect how power structured rooted in the past might influence content, translation and impositions in their project implementation in one education university in Indonesia.Although the authors finally achieved a somewhat level playing field through open dialogue, the unequal positioning based on previous colonialism past as well as funding structure formed an implicit rule in their working together.There is some movement to create more collaborative partnership in development program.Nordic countries aid to African countries cited to be one step toward this direction, they had 'few if any contingencies attached to their bilateral funding and took a collaborative approach to educational programming where recipient countries construct their own cultural and economic requirements' (Brown 2015).
Translation of ideas can form a part of collaborative partnership and it requires individuals who are conversant in both contexts.The role of local experts, educated in or familiar with western educational system, will be in the best position to translate western ideas into local contexts or vice versa, mainstreaming local practices that support teacher professional development (Brown 2015;Saud & Johnston 2006).The spread of Japanese "lesson study" is one example that mainstreaming local practice to improve teachers' practices internationally and inspired replications in other countries with various modifications to fit local contours (see Saito 2012).In the future, collaborative partnership might also be two-directional in nature where changes occur from the bottom up.

E. Closing Remarks
In the end, it is also important to keep questioning the relevance of international education ideas for our own development goals.In the world where globalization seems to change and intensify the integration of economic and culture that seems to stimulate uniformity of educational system across countries.Local and grass root responses might provide different realities to globalization as the case of Indonesia.Given the chance, there might not be one dominant model of education but multiple models that will serve better the diverse communities of teachers and learners (Spring 2009).
For this to happen, teacher education and professional development will need to form a coherent and systematic process that will ensure teachers are selected, prepared and supported in doing their job while reflecting social and cultural values in achieving the goals of this nation.